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I. INTRODUCTION
A. The need for action
1. The major threats to the health and productivity and biodiversity of the
marine environment result from human activities on land – in coastal
areas and further inland. Most of the pollution load of the oceans, including
municipal, industrial and agricultural wastes and run-off, as well as
atmospheric deposition, emanates from such land-based activities and affects
the most productive areas of the marine environment, including estuaries and
near-shore coastal waters. These areas are likewise threatened by physical
alteration of the coastal environment, including destruction of habitats of
vital importance for ecosystem health. Moreover, contaminants which pose
risks to human health and living resources are transported long distances by
watercourses, ocean currents and atmospheric processes.
2. The bulk of the world's population
lives in coastal areas, and there is a continuing trend towards its
concentration in these regions. The health, well-being and, in some cases,
the very survival of coastal populations depend upon the health and
well-being of coastal systems – estuaries and wetlands– as well
as their associated watersheds and drainage basins and near-shore coastal
waters. Ultimately, sustainable patterns of human activity in coastal areas
depend upon a healthy marine environment, and vice versa.
B. Aims of the Global Programme of
Action
3. The Global Programme of Action aims at preventing the degradation of the
marine environment from land-based activities by facilitating the realization
of the duty of States to preserve and protect the marine environment. It is
designed to assist States in taking actions individually or jointly within
their respective policies, priorities and resources, which will lead to the
prevention, reduction, control and/or elimination of the degradation of the
marine environment, as well as to its recovery from the impacts of land-based
activities. Achievement of the aims of the Programme of Action will
contribute to maintaining and, where appropriate, restoring the productive
capacity and biodiversity of the marine environment, ensuring the protection
of human health, as well as promoting the conservation and sustainable use of
marine living resources.
C. Legal and institutional framework
4. International law, as reflected in the provisions of the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and elsewhere, sets forth rights
and obligations of States and provides the international basis upon which to
pursue the protection and sustainable development of the marine and coastal
environment and its resources.
5. In accordance with general
international law, while States have the sovereign right to exploit their
natural resources pursuant to their environmental policies, the enjoyment of
such right shall be in accordance with the duty to protect and preserve the
marine environment. This fundamental duty is to protect and preserve the
marine environment from all sources of pollution, including land-based
activities Of particular significance for the Global Programme of Action are
the provisions contained in articles 207 and 213 of UNCLOS
6. Also of particular importance for the
Programme of Action is the emphasis, in parts XII, XIII and XIV of the
Convention, dealing, respectively, with protection and preservation of the
marine environment, marine scientific research and the development and
transfer of marine technology, on the obligation of States to cooperate in
the development of the marine scientific and technological capacity of developing
States and to provide them with scientific and technical assistance.
7. The duty of States to preserve and
protect the marine environment has been reflected and elaborated upon in
numerous global conventions and regional instruments (e.g the Convention on
the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter;
Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous
Wastes and their Disposal; Convention on Biological Diversity; United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change; Regional Seas Conventions;
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL
73/78), etc.). Innovative new principles and approaches applicable to the
prevention of the degradation of the marine environment from land-based
activities have been included in a number of such agreements.
8. In 1982, the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) took the initiative to develop advice to Governments on
addressing impacts on the marine environment from land-based activities. This
initiative resulted in the preparation of the Montreal Guidelines for the
Protection of the Marine Environment Against Pollution from Land-based
Sources in 1985.
9. The duty to protect the marine
environment from land-based activities was placed squarely in the context of
sustainable development by the United Nations Conference on Environment
andDevelopment in 1992. Therein, States agreed it is necessary:
(a) To apply preventive, precautionary, and anticipatory approaches so as to
avoid degradation of the marine environment, as well as to reduce the risk of
long-term or irreversible adverse effects upon it;
(b) To ensure prior assessment of activities that may have significant
adverse impacts upon the marine environment;
(c) To integrate protection of the marine environment into relevant general
environmental, social and economic development policies;
(d) To develop economic incentives, where appropriate, to apply clean
technologies and other means consistent with the internalization of
environmental costs, such as the "polluter pays" principle, so as
to avoid degradation of the marine environment;
(e) To improve the living standards of coastal populations, particularly in
developing countries, so as to contribute to reducing the degradation of the
coastal and marine environment.
10. As set out in paragaph 17.23 of Agenda
21, States agree that provision of additional financial resources, through
appropriate international mechanisms, as well as access to cleaner
technologies and relevant research, would be necessary to support action by
developing countries to implement this commitment.
11. Agenda 21 linked the implementation of
those duties with action to implement commitments to integrated management
and sustainable development of the marine environment, including coastal
areas under national jurisdiction. In this regard, States agreed to implement
the provisions of the programme of action adopted at the World Coast
Conference in Noordwijk in 1993 and to further develop those provisions in
order to make them more operational.
12. Agenda 21 also linked action to combat
marine degradation caused by land-based activities to action to address the
specific problems of small island developing States In this regard, States
agreed to implement the provisions of the priority areas of the Programme of
Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States,
adopted in Barbados in 1994.
13. In order to promote, facilitate and
finance implementation of Agenda 21 by developing countries, an objective of
Agenda 21 is to provide additional financial resources that are both adequate
and predictable. Another objective in this context is to promote, facilitate
and finance, as appropriate, the access to and the transfer of
environmentally sound technologies and corresponding know-how, in particular
to developing countries, on favourable terms, including concessional and
preferential terms, as mutually agreed, taking into account the need to
protect intellectual property rights as well as the special needs of
developing countries for the implementation of Agenda 21.
D. The Global Programme of Action
14. The Programme of Action, therefore, is designed to be a source of
conceptual and practical guidance to be drawn upon by national and/or
regional authorities in devising and implementing sustained action to
prevent, reduce, control and/or eliminate marine degradation from land-based
activities. Effective implementation of this Programme of Action is a crucial
and essential step forward in the protection of the marine environment and
will promote the objectives and goals of sustainable development.
15. The Global Programme of Action
reflects the fact that States face a growing number of commitments flowing
from Agenda 21 and related conventions. Its implementation will require new
approaches by, and new forms of collaboration among, Governments,
organizations and institutions with responsibilities and expertise relevant
to marine and coastal areas, at all levels-national, regional and global.
These include the promotion of innovative financial mechanisms to generate
needed resources.
II. ACTIONS AT THE NATIONAL LEVEL
Basis for action
16. Sustainable use of the oceans depends on the maintenance of ecosystem
health, public health, food security, and economic and social benefits
including cultural values. Many countries depend on sources of income from
activities that would be directly threatened by degradation of the marine
environment: industries such as fishing and tourism are obvious examples. The
subsistence economy of large coastal populations, in particular in the
developing countries, is based on marine living resources that would also be
threatened by such degradation Also to be considered are the impacts of such
degradation on maritime culture and traditional lifestyles.
17. Food security is threatened, in
particular in developing countries, by the loss of marine living resources
that are vital for the adequate provision of food and for combating poverty.
Public health considerations from a degraded marine environment manifest
themselves through the contamination of seafood, direct contact, such as
through bathing, and the use of sea water in desalination and food-processing
plants
Objectives
18. To develop comprehensive, continuing and adaptive programmes of action
within the framework of integrated coastal area management which should
include provisions for:
(a) Identification and assessment of problems;
(b) Establishment of priorities;
(c) Setting management objectives for priority problems;
(d) Identification, evaluation and selection of strategies and measures,
including management approaches;
(e) Criteria for evaluating the effectiveness of strategies and programmes;
(f) Programme support elements.
Actions
19. States should, in accordance with their policies, priorities and
resources, develop or review national programmes of action within a few years
and take forward action to implement these programmes with the assistance of
the international cooperation identified in chapter IV, in particular to developing
countries, especially the least developed countries, countries with economies
in transition and small island developing States (hereinafter referred to as
"countries in need of assistance"). The effective development and
implementation of national programmes of action should focus on sustainable,
pragmatic and integrated environmental management approaches and processes,
such as integrated coastal area management, harmonized, as appropriate, with
river basin management and land-use plans.
20. Recommended actions to give effect to the objectives in the development
of national programmes of action by States are summarized in sections A, B,
C, D, E and F below. They are illustrated in more detail in the actions and
targets identified in chapter V below.
A. Identification and assessment of
problems
21. The identification and assessment of problems is a process of combining
five elements:
(a) Identification of the nature and
severity of problems in relation to:
(i) Food security and poverty alleviation;
(ii) Public health;
(iii) Coastal and marine resources and ecosystem health, including biological
diversity;
(iv) Economic and social benefits and uses, including cultural values;
(b) Contaminants: (not listed in order of
priority)
(i) Sewage;
(ii) Persistent organic pollutants;
(iii) Radioactive substances;
(iv) Heavy metals;
(v) Oils (hydrocarbons);
(vi) Nutrients;
(vii) Sediment mobilization;
(viii) Litter;
(c) Physical alteration, including habitat
modification and destruction in areas of concern;
(d) Sources of degradation:
(i) Point sources (coastal and upstream), such as: (not listed in order of
priority)
A. Waste-water treatment facilities;
B. Industrial facilities;
C. Power plants;
D. Military installations;
E. Recreational/tourism facilities;
F. Construction works (e.g., dams, coastal structures, harbour works and
urban expansion);
G. Coastal mining (e.g., sand and gravel);
H. Research centres;
I. Aquaculture;
J. Habitat modification (e.g., dredging, filling of wetlands or clearing of
mangrove areas);
K. Introduction of invasive species;
(ii) Non-point (diffuse) sources (coastal and upstream), such as: (not listed
in order of priority)
A. Urban run-off;
B. Agricultural and horticultural run-off;
C. Forestry run-off;
D. Mining waste run-off;
E. Construction run-off;
F. Landfills and hazardous waste sites;
G. Erosion as a result of physical modification of coastal features;
(iii) Atmospheric deposition caused by:
A. Transportation (e.g., vehicle emissions);
B. Power plants and industrial facilities;
C.Incinerators;
D. Agricultural operations;
(e) Areas of concern (what areas are
affected or vulnerable): (not listed in order of priority)
(i) Critical habitats, including coral reefs, wetlands, seagrass beds,
coastal lagoons and mangrove forests;
(ii) Habitats of endangered species;
(iii) Ecosystem components, including spawning areas, nursery areas, feeding
grounds and adult areas;
(iv) Shorelines;
(v) Coastal watersheds;
(vi) Estuaries and their drainage basins;
(vii) Specially protected marine and coastal areas; and
(viii) Small islands.
B. Establishment of priorities
22. Priorities for action should be established by assessing the five factors
described above and should specifically reflect:
(a) The relative importance of impacts upon food security, public health,
coastal and marine resources, ecosystem health, and socio-economic benefits,
including cultural values, in relation to:
(i) Source-categories (contaminants, physical alteration, and other forms of
degradation and the source or practice from which they emanate);
(ii) The area affected (including its uses and the importance of its
ecological characteristics);
(b) The costs, benefits and feasibility of options for action, including the
long-term cost of no action.
23. In the process of establishing priorities
for action and throughout all stages of developing and implementing national
programmes of action, States should:
(a) Apply integrated coastal area management approaches, including provision
to involve stakeholders, in particular local authorities and communities and
relevant social and economic sectors, including non-governmental
organizations, women, indigenous people and other major groups;
(b) Recognize the basic linkages between the freshwater and marine
environments through, inter alia, application of watershed management
approaches;
(c) Recognize the basic linkages between sustainable management of coastal
and marine resources, poverty alleviation and protection of the marine
environment;
(d) Apply environmental impact assessment procedures in assessing options;
(e) Take into account the need to view such programmes as an integrated part
of existing or future comprehensive environmental programmes;
(f) Take steps to protect: (i) critical habitats, using community-based
participatory approaches that are consistent with current approaches to
conservation and uses compatible with sustainable development; and (ii)
endangered species;
(g) Integrate national action with any relevant regional and global
priorities, programmes and strategies;
(h) Establish focal points to facilitate regional and international
cooperation;
(i) Apply the precautionary approach and the principle of intergenerational
equity.
24. The precautionary approach should be
applied through preventive and corrective measures based on existing
knowledge, impact assessments, resources and capacities at national level,
drawing on pertinent information and analyses at the subregional, regional
and global levels. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage,
lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for
postponing cost-effective measures to prevent the degradation of the marine
environment.
C. Setting management objectives for
priority problems
25. On the basis of the priorities established, States should define specific
management objectives, both with respect to source categories and areas
affected. Such objectives should be set forth in terms of overall goals,
targets and timetables, as well as specific targets and timetables for areas
affected and for individual industrial, agricultural, urban and other
sectors. Wherever possible, States should take immediate preventive and
remedial action using existing knowledge, resources, plans and processes.
D. Identification, evaluation and
selection of strategies and measures
26. Strategies and programmes to achieve these management objectives should
include a combination of:
(a) Specific measures, including, as appropriate:
(i) Measures to promote sustainable use of coastal and marine resources and
to prevent/reduce degradation of the marine environment, such as:
a. Best available techniques (Note: For the purposes of this Programme,
"best available techniques" is understood to include socio-economic
factors.) and best environmental practices, including substitution of
substances or processes entailing significant adverse effects;
b. Introduction of clean production practices, including efficient use of
energy and water in all economic and social sectors;
c. Application of best management practices;
d. Use of appropriate, environmentally sound and efficient technologies;
e. Product substitution;
(ii) Measures to modify contaminants or other forms of degradation after
generation, such as:
a. Waste recovery;
b. Recycling, including effluent reuse;
c. Waste treatment;
(iii) Measures to prevent, reduce or ameliorate degradation of affected
areas, such as:
a. Environmental quality criteria, with biological, physical and/or chemical
criteria for measuring progress;
b. Land-use planning requirements, including criteria for siting of major
facilities;
c. Rehabilitation of degraded habitats;
(b) Requirements and incentives to induce action to comply with measures,
such as:
(i) Economic instruments and incentives, taking into account the
"polluter pays" principle and the internalization of environmental
costs;
(ii) Regulatory measures;
(iii) Technical assistance/cooperation, including training of personnel;
(iv) Education and public awareness;
(c) Identification/designation of the institutional arrangement with the
authority and resources to carry out management tasks associated with the
strategies and programmes, including implementation of compliance provisions;
(d) Identification of short-term and long-term data-collection and research
needs;
(e) Development of a monitoring and environmental-quality reporting system to
review and, if necessary, help adapt the strategies and programmes;
(f) Identification of sources of finance and mechanisms available to cover
the costs of administering and managing the strategies and programmes.
E. Criteria for evaluating the
effectiveness of strategies and measures
27. A key element in successful strategies and programmes is to develop
ongoing means of determining whether they are meeting their management
objectives States should develop specific criteria to evaluate the
effectiveness of such strategies and programmes. While such criteria must be
tailored to the particular mix of elements (illustrated in section C above)
in each strategy or programme, they should address:
(a) Environmental effectiveness;
(b) Economic costs and benefits;
(c) Equity (costs and benefits of the strategy or programme are being shared
fairly);
(d) Flexibility in administration (the strategy or programme can adapt to
changes in circumstances);
(e) Effectiveness in administration (management of the strategy or programme
is cost-effective and accountable);
(f) Timing (the timetable needed to put the strategy or programme in place
and to begin producing results);
(g) Inter-media effects (the achievement of the objectives of the strategy or
programme creates a net environmental benefit).
F. Programme support elements
28. The long-term objective of national programmes of action should be to
develop integrated strategies and programmes to address all action priorities
in relation to impacts upon the marine environment from land-based
activities. In addition, the programmes of action must themselves be
integrated with overall national objectives and other relevant programmes in
relation to sustainable development States therefore should seek to ensure
that there are administrative and management structures necessary to support
the national programmes of action. These include, as appropriate:
(a) Organizational arrangements to coordinate among sectors and sectoral
institutions;
(b) Legal and enforcement mechanisms (e.g., need for new legislation);
(c) Financial mechanisms (including innovative approaches to provide
continuing and predictable programme funding);
(d) Means of identifying and pursuing research and monitoring requirements in
support of the programme;
(e) Contingency planning;
(f) Human resources development and education;
(g) Public participation and awareness (e.g., based on integrated coastal
area management principles).
III. REGIONAL COOPERATION
Basis for action
29. Regional and subregional cooperation and arrangements are crucial for
successful actions to protect the marine environment from land-based
activities. This is particularly so where a number of countries have coasts
in the same marine and coastal area, most notably in enclosed or
semi-enclosed seas. Such cooperation allows for more accurate identification
and assessment of the problems in particular geographic areas and more
appropriate establishment of priorities for action in these area. Such cooperation
also strengthens regional and national capacity-building and offers an
important avenue for harmonizing and adjusting measures to fit the particular
environmental and socio-economic circumstances. It, moreover, supports a more
efficient and cost-effective implementation of the programmes of action.
Objectives
30. To strengthen and, where necessary, create new regional cooperative
arrangements and joint actions to support effective action, strategies and
programmes for:
a) Identification and assessment of problems;
b) Establishment of targets and priorities for action;
c) Development and implementation of pragmatic and comprehensive management
approaches and processes;
d) Development and implementation of strategies to mitigate and remediate
land-based sources of harm to the coastal and marine environment.
Activities
A. Participation in regional and subregional arrangements
31. States should :
a) Pursue more active participation, including accession or ratification, as
appropriate, in regional seas and other international marine and freshwater
agreements, conventions and related arrangements;
b) Strengthen existing regional conventions and programmes, and their
institutional arrangements;
c) Negotiate as, appropriate, new regional conventions and programmes.
B. Effective functioning of regional and subregional arrangements
32. With respect to the institutional
aspects of regional and subregional arrangements, States should:
a) Invite multilateral financing agencies, including regional development
banks, and national institutions for bilateral development cooperation to
cooperate in programming and in national implementation of regional
agreements in the developing country regions;
b) National action strategies and programmes can sometimes be best developed
in a regional and subregional context In developing such programmes of
action, due consideration should be given to the suggested approaches and
targets identified in chapter V of the present Programme of Action, and to
the methodology specified in chapter II above. The programmes of action
should be developed and implemented on a timetable appropriate to regional or
subregional circumstances and decided upon by the governing bodies of the
regional or subregional agreements, conventions or arrangements as appropriate;
c) Establish or strengthen regional information networks and linkages for
communicating with clearing-houses and other sources of information;
d) Ensure close collaboration between the national and regional focal points
and regional economic groupings, other relevant regional and international
organizations, development banks and regional rivers authorities /
commissions, in the development and implementation of regional programmes of
action;
e) Encourage and facilitate cooperation between and among regional
organizations/conventions to promote the exchange of information, experience
and expertise;
f) Ensure that there is adequate secretariat support for regional and
subregional arrangements (legal agreements and programmes of action),
including;
i. Clear definition of secretariat functions and responsibilities;
ii. Consolidation of secretariats, including reliance on existing
institutional arrangements, where cost-effective;
iii. Cooperation between secretariats;
iv. Close integration of regional and subregional programmes of action and
the relevant legal agreements that apply to the region and subregion.
33. In the development and implementation
of the regional programmes of action, consideration should also be given to
the following;
a) Steps towards harmonization of environmental and control standards for
emissions and discharges of pollutants, and agreement on data-quality
assurance standards, data validation, comparative analysis, reference methods
and training that are required for reliable monitoring and assessment carried
out for the protection of the marine environment from land-based activities;
b) Steps to protect critical habitats and endangered species;
c) Exploring the use of innovative financing mechanisms that will assist the
implementation of national and regional programmes of action;
d) Building capacity and, where appropriate, identifying regional centres of
excellence for research, management tools and concepts, training and
capacity-building as well as contingency-planning, monitoring and assessment,
including environmentally sound technology assessment;
e) Arrangements to ensure that decision-making at the regional level is based
in an integrated planning and management approach adopted at the national
level;
f) Establishment of linkages with regional or subregional fisheries
arrangements, as well as other mechanisms dealing with conservation of marine
species, to promote collaboration in the exchange of data and information and
mutual reinforcement in the achievement of respective objectives.
34. Land-locked States whose river systems
and drainage basins are linked to a particular marine region or subregion
should be encouraged to participate in the relevant regional and subregional
arrangements for:
a) Identification and characterization of drainage basins that are closely
linked to degradation of the coastal areas and the marine environment.
b) of scale and monitoring of national activities and practices that are
associated with degradation of the marine environment;
c) Establishment or strengthening of national environmental management and
surveillance mechanisms and networks that are consistent with regional seas
agreements or other arrangements.
35. States should encourage, where
appropriate, regions to enter into interregional cooperation in order to
exchange experiences and to help implement policies Interregional cooperation
may also be necessary to promote coordination of efforts for the protection
and preservation of marine ecosystems and habitats.
IV. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION
Basis for action
36. Effective international cooperation is important for the successful and
cost-effective implementation of the Programme of Action. International
cooperation serves a central role in enhancing capacity-building, technology
transfer and cooperation, and financial support. Moreover, effective
implementation of the Programme of Action requires efficient support from
appropriate international agencies. Furthermore, international cooperation is
required to ensure regular review of the implementation of the Programme and
its further development and adjustment.
37. At the global level, there is a need
for regular reviews of the state of the world marine environment, as well as
dialogues, based on reports from relevant regional organizations, on
implementation of regional action programmes, including exchange of
experiences, the flow of financial resources in support of the
implementation, in particular by countries in need of assistance, of national
action to prevent and reduce marine degradation caused by land-based
activities as well as scientific and technological cooperation and transfer
of cleaner technology, in particular, to countries in need of assistance.
Objective
38. To strengthen existing international cooperation and institutional
mechanisms and, where appropriate, to establish new arrangements, in order to
support States and regional groups to undertake sustained action to address
impacts upon the marine environment from land-based activities. Such actions
should be based on the commitments with respect to financial resources
contained in chapter 33 of Agenda 21, including paragraph 33.11, and those
with respect to transfer of environmentally sound technology, cooperation and
capacity-building contained in chapter 34 of Agenda 21, including paragraphs
34.4 and 34.14, as well as the commitments contained in paragraphs 17.23 and
17.48.
Activities
39. Recommended actions to give effect to these objectives in support of
national and regional action to prevent and reduce marine degradation caused
by land-based activities fall into four general categories:
(a) Capacity-building;
(b) The mobilization of financial resources;
(c) The international institutional framework;
(d) Additional areas of international cooperation.
A. Capacity-building
40. The mechanisms and cooperative actions should include:
(a) The mobilization of experience in support of national and regional action
to prevent and reduce marine degradation caused by land-based activities;
(b) A clearing-house mechanism.
These mechanisms and cooperative actions should take into account the special
needs of countries in need of assistance, including support for the
establishment of infrastructures and the development of action programmes, as
well as the alternatives and solutions that such countries are able to offer.
1. Mobilization of experience and
expertise
41 States should cooperate to ensure that the most up-to-date information,
experience and technical expertise with respect to each source-category of
impacts upon the marine environment from land-based activities are made
available and brought to bear upon national and regional actions to address
such impacts. The steps to this end should include:
(a) Establishment of linkages with international and regional organizations,
including specialized agencies, with relevant expertise and responsibilities
with respect to particular sources and sectors;
(b) Promotion of cooperative interaction with private-sector groups and
non-governmental organizations to introduce cost-effective and environmentally
sound practices;
(c) Facilitation and promotion of access, in particular for countries in need
of assistance, to new and innovative technologies relevant to each
source-category of impacts upon the marine environment from land-based
activities, including those causing physical degradation and destruction of
habitats;
(d) Promotion of cleaner production techniques, inter alia, through training
of industry personnel;
(e) Promotion of new information technologies that facilitate knowledge transfer
within countries and between States, including, in particular, from developed
countries to countries in need of assistance;
(f) Facilitation of access to sources (public or private, national or
multilateral) of technical advice and assistance with respect to particular
source-categories and sectors;
(g) Facilitation of identification of opportunities for projects contributing
to sustainable development for the private sector, including by industry and
banks;
(h) Establishment of linkages with the activities of ongoing international
programmes monitoring and assessing the state of marine environment and
relevant river systems, for example, the Joint Group of Experts on the
Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection (GESAMP), the Global
Ocean Observing System (GOOS), the Global Investigation of Pollution in the
Marine Environment (GIPME), the Global Environment Monitoring System/Water,
and the World Hydrological Cycle Observing System; and
(i) Establishment of linkages with international organizations, including
specialized agencies and other organizations of the United Nations system,
for dealing with environmental emergencies.
2. Clearing-house
42. As a means of mobilizing experience and expertise, including facilitation
of effective scientific, technical and financial cooperation, as well as
capacity-building, States should cooperate in the development of a
clearing-house mechanism, i.e., a referral system through which decision
makers at the national and regional level are provided with access to current
sources of information, practical experience and scientific and technical
expertise relevant to developing and implementing strategies to deal with the
impacts of land-based activities. The referral system would be designed to
allow decision makers to establish rapid and direct contact with the
organizations, institutions, firms and/or individuals most able to provide
relevant advice and assistance. It would therefore be a mechanism for
responding to requests from
national Governments on a timely basis The clearing-house would consist of
three basic elements:
(a) A data directory, with components organized by source-category,
cross-referenced to economic sectors, containing information on current
sources of information, practical experience and technical expertise;
(b) Information-delivery mechanisms to allow decision makers to have ready
access to the data directory and obtain direct contact with the sources of
information, practical experience and technical expertise identified therein
(including the organizations, institutions, firms and/or individuals most
able to provide relevant advice and assistance);
(c) Infrastructure - the institutional process for developing, organizing and
maintaining the directory and delivery mechanisms.
43. Data directory.
The data directory would include a component for each source-category
delineated in this Programme of Action. Each such component would contain
descriptions and contact information for each existing database and source of
practical information and technical expertise. The descriptions and contact
information would allow decision makers to determine which sources of
information, experience and expertise are most relevant in a given situation
and to contact these sources quickly. A key prerequisite for maintaining the
directory is regular review of the descriptions and contact information to
ensure that it is up-to-date. For each source-category, the relevant
databases and sources of information, experience and expertise are likely to
be dispersed among a large number of institutions and repositories, including
global
and regional organizations and national Governments, the private sector and
non-governmental organizations. These institutions and repositories should be
fully involved in the development of the data directory component for that
source-category. In this way, the directory and its components should be
built upon, not replicate, the work of organizations such as the World Bank,
the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), UNEP, including the UNEP
International Cleaner Production Information Clearing-house (UNEP/ICPIC), the
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the International Maritime
Organization (IMO), the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO), the United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS)
(Habitat), the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO),
the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment
Programme (AMAP). It should in addition make full use of the Small Island
Developing States Network (SIDS-NET). Where appropriate, it should also draw
upon the work of other intergovernmental and non- governmental organizations
and the private sector.
44. Each data-directory component should
be organized so as to identify:
(a) Sources of current information, practical experience and technical
expertise on:
(i) The nature, pathways, fate and effects of the contaminants or other forms
of degradation, including data-quality assurance techniques;
(ii) Standards and reference methods for monitoring contamination, as well as
its concentrations, or other forms of degradation, including
biological-effects monitoring and data-quality assurance techniques;
(iii) Policies, measures and strategies for action, including mobilization
and generation of resources, that have been successfully applied (and those
that have been unsuccessful) in addressing activities generating the
source-category contaminants or other forms of degradation (what works and
what does not); and
(iv) Economically rational, environmentally sound and cleaner practices,
techniques and technologies to prevent, mitigate and/or control adverse
impacts on the marine environment of land-based activities;
(b) Sources of relevant information:
(i) In international and regional organizations (including non-governmental
organizations) with relevant expertise and experience; and
(ii) Concerning intergovernmental and private sources of assistance,
scientific, technical and financial, including such matters as the terms and
conditions for the provision of such assistance.
45. Information-delivery mechanisms.
The clearing-house mechanism must include simple and widely available means
of gaining entry to the directory and retrieving information from its
components, including directing inquiries to the organizations, institutions,
firms and/or individuals most able to provide relevant advice and assistance.
In other words, the data directory must be easily accessible to decision
makers on a real-time basis. The objective would be user-friendly access to
the data directory and its components through electronic means. The World
Wide Web on the Internet offers such a basic access mechanism. It is
recognized, however, that the Internet is not universally available. It is
important, therefore, to also use and build upon existing
information-delivery systems, including the UNDP network of resident
representatives, INFOTERRA, and linked regional systems, including the
secretariats of regional seas and other regional conventions.
46. Infrastructure.
The development, organization and maintenance of the data directory and its
components and the delivery mechanisms have both specific (source-category)
and general dimensions. At the general level, an inter-organizational group
should be established by the relevant international organizations to
coordinate the basic design and structure of the data directory as well as
its linkages to information-delivery mechanisms. This group would be
responsible for establishing a common format for the individual
source-category components and for cross-referencing among components. It
would include representatives of each lead organization responsible for
coordinating development of individual data-directory components, those
responsible for information-delivery mechanisms, and experts on information
technology and other relevant fields.
47. For each source-category component of
the data directory, a lead organization should be designated to convene or
designate a group of experts to develop the content of specific entries for
that component Issues such as ensuring that entries meet quality and
relevance criteria and keywords or search items relevant to the
source-category would also be the responsibility of each group of experts.
There would be provision to reconvene each such group periodically to update
the source-category component, including ensuring that the sources of
information, practical experience and technical expertise are relevant and do
represent the best sources.
48. Recognizing that many developing
States may not have the necessary capacity to benefit from the clearing-house
mechanism, this process of implementation should provide for capacity-
building, including technical training and infrastructure development.
49. The clearing-house mechanism should be
designed to include feedback functions to provide for its refinement and
evolution to meet the needs of its users. These feedback functions include:
(a) Identification of data and information gaps and recommendations as to how
to address such gaps;
(b) Identification of training and infrastructure requirements for those
using the clearing-house mechanism;
(c) Provision for establishment of links between the clearing-house mechanism
and regional agreements, institutions and centres holding information,
experience and technical expertise of specific relevance to the region
concerned.
B. Mobilizing financial resources
50. Alongside the mobilization of experience and expertise, the mobilization
of financial resources is the other indispensable foundation for the
development and implementation of national and regional programmes for the
protection of the marine environment from land-based activities. It is
recognized that the development of national and regional action programmes
are of primary international importance.
51. While States recognize that, in
general, the financing for the implementation of the national and regional
programmes of action that will embody this Global Programme of Action should
come from each country's own public and private sectors, they reaffirm:
(a) Their conclusion that international cooperation for sustainable
development should be strengthened in order to support and complement the
efforts of countries in need of assistance;
(b) Their acknowledgement that, for countries in need of assistance,
substantial new and additional funding will be required for the actions
flowing from Agenda 21;
(c) Their commitment that such funding should be provided in a way that
maximizes the availability of new and additional resources and uses all
available funding sources and mechanisms,as set out in paragraph 17.23 and,
more generally, in chapter 33 of Agenda 21.
52. There is increasing realization
worldwide of the need for action to protect the world's marine environment,
described in the opening paragraphs of this Programme. Equally, it is
increasingly realized that land-based activities are the predominant source
of adverse impacts on the marine environment. This realization should lead to
a correspondingly greater political emphasis, at national, regional and
global levels, on the need to ensure the mobilization of the necessary
funding for the action needed within the framework of integrated management
of coastal zones and, where appropriate, associated watersheds. This in turn
should be translated into an increased willingness by partners for
international development cooperation to provide financing, including on
concessionary and preferential terms, for projects aimed at fulfilling the
objectives of this Programme of Action.
1. Scale of funding required
53. There are major differences among the different regions of the world, and
the States which they comprise, in terms of geography, physiography, and
ecology and, above all, in economic and social conditions, level of
development and regional cooperation. In many cases, as well, the impacts on
the marine environment of various contaminants and forms of physical
disturbance will have different degrees of importance. All these variations
will lead to different judgments on the appropriate priorities to be given to
tackling the different problems mentioned in chapters II and III above. Each
State will therefore develop its own appropriate set of priorities for the
tasks that it decides to undertake to protect the marine environment, and
these priorities will be reflected in the composition and scale of its
national programme of action and any regional programme in which it
participates.
54. The amount of funding required for
implementation of the present Programme, and the mix of sources and mechanisms
that is appropriate, will therefore flow from these national decisions on
priorities. The differing national priorities, the range of actions which may
need to be undertaken and the variety of sources and mechanisms which may be
used, separately or in combination, to finance them mean that there will be
significant variations between States in the approach to mobilizing financial
resources, in particular between developed and developing States.
2. Range of financing possibilities
55. The funding of action to address the priorities at the national and
regional levels, consistent with chapters II, III and V of this Programme,
requires, in the first place, the identification of all the various potential
domestic funding sources and mechanisms, in order to determine which are
appropriate for the priority concerned, and to find ways of linking them in
an innovative fashion. An illustrative list of domestic sources and
mechanisms is set out in the annex to the present Programme of Action. There
will be differences between States, particularly between developed countries
and countries in need of assistance, in the extent to which use of these
various options is possible. As part of the preparation of their national
plans, States should evaluate the potential of these options.
56. For many States, whether developed,
developing or in economic transition, it will also be appropriate to look
more widely for appropriate sources of financial resources and mechanisms to
mobilize them effectively Funding from domestic sources and mechanisms may be
insufficient, particularly for countries in need of assistance An
illustrative list of external sources and mechanisms is also included in the
annex to the present Programme of Action Where appropriate, in the
preparation of their national programmes, States should investigate the
potential roles of such sources and mechanisms.
57. For countries in need of assistance,
there is a limited level of domestic resources available and a wide range of
demanding challenges to be faced in many fields. Where the lack of domestic
financial resources means that projects in such countries will not be able to
proceed, there will be recourse to external financing, particularly funding
through grants and concessionary loans. In other cases, external financing,
through various innovative schemes (such as co-financing and joint ventures,
underwriting of country risks, and venture capital funds) can also act as a
catalyst for the mobilization of domestic financial resources and provide
leverage to attract additional external financial resources in order to
mobilize more efficiently new financial flows.
3. Funding the programmes
58. National and regional programmes should ensure that there is a balance
between the projects to be undertaken to implement national and regional
priorities and the sources of funding available.
59. Where recourse to external sources and
mechanisms for financial resources is necessary, the mix of the various
possibilities that will be appropriate will vary from country to country. The
pattern of funding will have to be determined in accordance with the
decisions on individual projects.
60 Further, countries in need of assistance may need help in
capacity-building for:
(a) Development of national programmes of action;
(b) Preparation of national assessments on each source-category;
(c) Identification of ways and means of funding the implementation of the
national plans.
61. National and international financial
institutions, bilateral donors and other competent regional and international
organizations should assist in this capacity-building task.
62. As part of the process of ensuring
that intergovernmental agencies and other international bodies take due
account of this Programme of Action, and in view of the particular significance
of external finance for countries in need of assistance, it will be necessary
for those international agencies concerned with the provision of finance,
particularly in the form of grants and concessionary loans, to ensure that
their policies give appropriate priority to assistance for projects aimed at
the implementation of the Programme. A similar approach is also needed for
bilateral assistance International financial institutions should provide
information on the amounts and terms of the financial resources that they
might provide, in particular to countries in need of assistance.
63. Improved cooperation and coordination
is essential among national institutions, international organizations,
including financial institutions, and the private sector and non-governmental
organizations, to enhance the effectiveness of the delivery of financial and
other support.
64. Mobilizing financial resources is not
a one-off task. As part of the follow-up process to this Programme,
periodical reviews should be undertaken by the intergovernmental meetings
referred to in paragraph 77 below as to whether it has been possible to
achieve an appropriate balance between the scale and type of funding required
and that which has been available in practice In the light of such reviews, a
conclusion will have to be reached on any problems encountered over access to
new and additional funding sources and mechanisms, in accordance with the
commitments in Agenda 21.
4. Recommended approaches for projects to
be funded
65. The recommendations set out below are intended to highlight features
which are important for partners in international development cooperation in
the design and evaluation of, and for decisions on, projects for the
protection of the marine environment for which external financing is to be
sought. With appropriate modifications, they will also apply where a national
or regional programme contains a series of related projects .
66. Projects need to be prepared in the
context of the overall national or regional strategies, policies and
programmes related to the protection of the marine environment, on the basis
of its sustainable use and development Accordingly:
(a) Projects should be derived from the priorities established nationally for
the prevention, control and reduction of marine and coastal degradation
within the framework of integrated management of coastal zones and, where
appropriate, their associated watersheds, and consistent with the national
sustainable development strategy;
(b) Chapters II, III and V of this Programme should provide the policy
framework for the identification of priorities;
(c) Projects should be consistent with the principles and duty set out in
chapter I above.
67. The goals for projects responding to
the impact of land-based activities upon the marine environment include:
(a) Protection of the health and public amenities of coastal populations, in
particular those suffering from poverty and food insecurity, including
addressing sewage and industrial effluents;
(b) Conservation of marine living resources, including maintenance or
increase of future options for their sustainable use;
(c) Conservation and sustainable use, including restoration, of coastal and
marine biological diversity;
(d) Protection, including restoration, of habitats of marine living
resources, including critical spawning and feeding areas, as well as areas
used or suitable for mariculture;
(e) Alleviation of poverty as a means of reducing pressure on coastal and
marine environments;
(f) Addressing, where appropriate, management of associated watersheds.
68. Other features which will make
projects more likely to be effective or which will enhance their value
generally include:
(a) The involvement of user and local communities that are interested,
particularly the economic and social sectors affected;
(b) Consultation with organized civil society and non-governmental
organizations, and the private sector;
(c) Provision for capacity-building and the development of institutions,
including relevant technology and management training, human-resources
development and public outreach and education;
(d) Coordination between those providing external support when several
international development partners are involved;
(e) Partnerships and co-financing with the private sector;
(f) Promotion of knowledge and understanding of the marine environment;
(g) Innovation and replicability.
5. The Global Environment Facility
69. The Global Environment Facility (GEF) provides new and additional grants
and concessionary loans to eligible countries to meet the agreed
environmental costs of measures to achieve agreed global incremental benefits
in four focal areas: climate change, biological diversity, international
waters and ozone-layer depletion. The agreed incremental costs of activities
concerning land degradation, primarily desertification and deforestation, as
they relate to the four focal areas, are also eligible for funding. The
international waters and biodiversity focal areas are most directly related
to the goals of this Programme of Action, through links between land-based
activities and other focal areas should be recognized. Where consistent with
its operational strategies, GEF assistance can play an important role in
catalysing the necessary national and regional action to address those
international concerns identified in this Programme which ultimately have
global linkages and global policy implications GEF funding cannot, however,
be a substitute for ordinary development aid.
70. GEF is invited to build upon the work
that will be undertaken to implement this Programme of Action and fund the
agreed incremental costs of activities consistent with the GEF operational
strategy. It is also invited to consider:
(a) Reflecting the unity of the marine environment and its linkages to freshwater
systems;
(b) Recognizing that, while the focal area of international waters is to be
distinct from other areas of GEF funding, land-based activities may have
links both with it and with biological diversity and climate change;
(c) Recognizing the international significance of transboundary pollution
which may have its origin in a local area;
(d) Recognizing that, even where pollution or its root cause is confined to a
local area, some types of pollution may affect the waters of more than one
State, and thus be of international significance;
(e) Including, where appropriate, clearly defined and targeted research and
monitoring within projects.
71. States welcome the priority to be
given by the GEF operationalstrategy for international waters to impacts upon
the marine environment from land-based activities.
C. International institutional
framework
72. A number of international organizations and institutions, including
non-governmental organizations, regional and global, have responsibilities
and experience with respect to prevention, reduction and control of impacts
upon the marine environment from one or more of the source-categories of
land-based activities. The international institutional framework for
implementation of this Programme of Action, therefore, should be based upon
concerted action by States within the relevant organizations and institutions
to accord attention and priority to impacts on the marine environment from
land-based activities and concerted action by States to ensure effective
coordination and collaboration among such organizations and institutions. In
addition, the framework should make provision for regular review of the
Programme of Action, including its implementation and necessary adjustments.
73. The process of developing this
institutional framework will require a series of interlinked steps States
should commit themselves to taking action within the international
organizations and institutions with responsibilities and experience regarding
impacts upon the marine environment from land-based activities:
(a) To secure formal endorsement of those parts of the Programme of Action
that are of relevance to such organizations and institutions;
(b) To accord priority to the prevention, reduction and control of impacts
upon the marine environment from land-based activities through the economic,
social and environmental mandates of such organizations and institutions; and
(c) To review regularly the state of knowledge and the state of the art with
respect to the prevention, reduction and control of impacts upon the marine
environment from land-based activities through the economic, social and
environmental mandates of such organizations and institutions.
74. Recognizing that States have the
primary role in the implementation of this Programme of Action, UNEP, as the
coordinator and catalyst of environmental activities within the United
Nations system and beyond, should, through its programmes and secretariat
role:
(a) Promote and facilitate implementation of the Programme of Action at the
national level;
(b) Promote and facilitate implementation at the regional, including
subregional, level through, in particular, a revitalization of the Regional
Seas Programme; and
(c) Play a catalytic role in the implementation at the international level
with other organizations and institutions.
75. It is important that in fulfilling
this role, including the secretariat function, UNEP should undertake it in an
efficient and cost-effective manner, supported largely by the existing
resources, expertise and infrastructure available in all components of UNEP's
programmes. UNEP should be flexible and responsive to the evolving needs of
the Programme and the availability of resources, e.g from trust funds.
76. In facilitating the effective
implementation of the Programme of Action, UNEP should maintain a close
partnership with other organizations and bodies, such as IMO, WHO, FAO, the
World Meteorological Organization (WMO), UNDP, UNIDO, the Intergovernmental
Oceanographic Commission of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO/IOC), IAEA, the World Bank and regional
development banks, GEF and UNCHS (Habitat), as well as regional bodies
supporting the implementation of regional seas and relevant freshwater
programmes. An appropriate division of tasks is of essential importance to
ensure the efficient and cost-effective implementation of the Programme of
Action.
77. UNEP should, in close collaboration
with the relevant organizations and institutions, convene periodic intergovernmental
meetings to:
(a) Review progress on implementation of the Programme of Action;
(b) Review the results of scientific assessments regarding land-based impacts
upon the marine environment provided by relevant scientific organizations and
institutions, including GESAMP;
(c) Consider reports provided on national plans to implement the Programme of
Action;
(d) Review coordination and collaboration among organizations and
institutions, regional and global, that have responsibilities and experience
with respect to prevention, reduction and control of impacts upon the marine
environment from land-based activities;
(e) Promote exchange of experience between regions;
(f) Review progress on capacity-building (section A of this chapter) and on
mobilization of resources (section B of this chapter) to support the
implementation of the Programme of Action, in particular by countries in need
of assistance and, where appropriate, provide guidance;
(g) Consider the need for international rules, as well as recommended
practices and procedures, to further the objectives of the Programme of
Action.
78. In preparation for these meetings,
States should be encouraged to provide reports, directly or through relevant
regional organizations, on the implementation of the Programme of Action
Non-governmental organizations would also be invited to report on relevant
activities.
79. A component of the institutional
framework for implementation of the Programme of Action is establishment of
the clearing-house mechanism called for in section A of this chapter. This
will require collaboration between UNEP and a variety of international
organizations and institutions, including the United Nations system and
international financial institutions Specific steps include:
(a) Determination of the composition and providing for the establishment of
the inter-organizational steering group;
(b) Designation of lead organization(s) for the development and updating of
each source-category component in the data directory;
(c) Identification of the appropriate mix of information-delivery systems.
Steps for developing institutional
arrangements
80. The process of articulating the institutional framework to support and
implement this Programme of Action cuts across existing institutional
mandates and will require action within relevant international organizations
and institutions, including those of the United Nations system and
international financial institutions. It is recommended, therefore, that
pertinent provisions outlined in this Programme of Action be set forth in a
resolution to be adopted by the United Nations General Assembly at its
fifty-first session.
81. The resolution would set forth
commitment to the institutional framework outlined in the Programme of Action
and agree on specific steps towards its establishment, including the
clearing-house. Such steps would include identification of the international
organizations and institutions, regional and global, with responsibilities
and experience regarding impacts upon the marine environment from land-based
activities.
82. It is recommended that the issue of
the General Assembly resolution be specifically included on the agenda of the
Commission on Sustainable Development for consideration in the context of its
review of chapter 17 of Agenda 21, on oceans.
83. The Executive Director of UNEP is
called upon to prepare a proposal setting forth a specific plan for
implementing the institutional arrangements contained in this Programme of
Action, including, in collaboration with other organizations, the preparation
of a draft implementation plan and pilot project for the clearing-house. This
proposal should be submitted to the inter-sessional meeting for the
Commission on Sustainable Development, to be held in February 1996. This plan
should include a clear indication of how UNEP intends to carry out its
functions in this regard, including secretariat functions, its contributions
to the clearing-house mechanism, proposals and action taken on coordination
among relevant United Nations and other organizations and how the relevant
UNEP programmes, including the Regional Seas Programme, could be strengthened
to carry out an effective role in the implementation of this Programme of
Action.
D. Additional areas of international
cooperation
1. Waste-water treatment and management
84 In accordance with Agenda 21, especially its chapters 17 and 18, States
should address the serious public health problems and the degradation of
coastal ecosystems that result from the disposal in coastal areas of
inadequately treated waste waters. This situation still affects many
countries, particularly countries in need of assistance.
85. States agree that planning for
pollution prevention, including cleaner-production approaches and
best-practice urban design, and the treatment and management of urban waste
water, including urban storm-water and separation of industrial effluent, are
priorities in the fulfilment of the objectives of this Programme of Action
and of Agenda 21. Mechanisms should be studied to expeditiously channel additional
resources for this purpose to countries in need of assistance.
86. The Executive Director of UNEP, in
close partnership with WHO, UNDP, UNCHS (Habitat) and other relevant
organizations, is called upon to prepare a proposal setting forth a specific
plan for addressing the global nature of the problems related to the
inadequate management and treatment of waste water. This should take account
of work already in progress in WHO and other competent international
organizations, including the Noordwijk Action Programme. This plan will
enable the issue to be addressed in an expeditious and efficient manner in
the follow-up to the Global Programme of Action at the international level.
2. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs)
87. Consistent with decision 18/32 adopted by the UNEP Governing Council in
May 1995, States should participate actively in the assessment and
development of recommendations concerning the list of twelve substances
identified in the UNEP decision.
88. There is agreement that:
(a) International action is needed to develop a global, legally binding
instrument, amongst other international and regional actions, for the
reduction and/or elimination of emissions and discharges, whether intentional
or not, and, where appropriate, the elimination of the manufacture and the
use of, and illegal traffic in, the persistent organic pollutants identified
in UNEP Governing Council decision 18/32, for which the scientific and
technical basis for action is already demonstrated, consistent with the
principles of the Rio Declaration, in particular Principle 15;
(b) In developing the instrument called for above, the nature of the
obligations undertaken must be developed recognizing the special
circumstances of countries in need of assistance. Particular attention should
be devoted to the potential need for the continued use of certain POPs and
the difficulty of acquiring substitutes and of the transfer of technology for
the development of those substitutes. This will require special consideration
to be given to economically feasible and environmentally sound ways of
ceasing to use, discharge or emit POPs selected for priority action. The
reduction and/or elimination of use, emissions and discharges of POPs should,
if necessary, be taken on a step-by-step basis;
(c) The range of substances identified in UNEP Governing Council decision
18/32 require differentiated actions depending on their source, nature and
use. For example, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) require international
cooperation for their proper management and disposal; unintended by-
products, such as dioxins and furans, warrant investigation of best available
technologies and alternative technologies; while pesticides require
approaches addressing use and production;
(d) Furthermore, States should commit themselves to an open and transparent
process to facilitate the work of the International Programme on Chemical
Safety (IPCS), the Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound Management of
Chemicals (IOMC) and the Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety (IFCS),
to assess and evaluate the environmental and socio-economic impact of other
persistent organic pollutants consistent with the purpose, functions and
priorities for action identified by IFCS with a view to their inclusion as
appropriate in the global, legally binding instrument mentioned above.
89. To implement Governing Council
decision 18/32, UNEP is undertaking a transparent process under the auspices
of IOMC, involving Governments, industry, public-interest groups and relevant
international organizations. This process is critical to ensuring a balanced
consideration of the principal technical matters and central policy issues
relevant to global action in this area.
90. States are encouraged to participate
actively in the development of a legal instrument for the application of the
prior informed consent (PIC) procedure for certain hazardous chemicals in
international trade, consistent with UNEP Governing Council decision 18/12,
adopted in May 1995.
V. RECOMMENDED APPROACHES BY SOURCE
CATEGORY
91. This chapter provides guidance as to
the actions that States should consider at national, regional and global
levels, in accordance with their national capacities, priorities and
available resources, and with the cooperation of the United Nations and other
relevant organizations, as appropriate, and with the international
cooperation for building capacities and mobilizing resources identified in
chapter IV.
92. In the light of the differences
between regions and States and the national priorities referred to in
paragraphs 53 and 54 above, each State and each regional grouping should
develop its own programme of action. This may or may not be a separate
document but it should include specific targets and a clear timetable showing
the dates by which the State or States involved commit themselves at a
political level to achieve these targets.
93. In addition, action will be needed on
certain matters at the global level, either to address global effects or to
facilitate action at the national or regional levels Specific targets for
these matters are set out in this chapter.
A. Sewage
1. Basis for action
94. Recognizing variation in local conditions, domestic waste water
improperly discharged to freshwater and coastal environments may present a
variety of concerns. These are associated with: (a) pathogens that may result
in human health problems through exposure via bathing waters or through
contaminated shellfish, (b) suspended solids, (c) significant nutrient
inputs, (d) biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), (e) cultural issues such as
taboos in some areas, (f) plastics and other marine debris, (g) ecosystem
population effects, and (h) heavy metals and other toxic substances, e.g
hydrocarbons, in those cases where industrial sources may have discharged
effluent to municipal collection systems.
95. Environmental effects associated with
domestic waste-water discharges are generally local with transboundary
implications in certain geographic areas. The commonality of sewage-related
problems throughout coastal areas of the world is significant. Consequently,
domestic waste-water discharges are considered one of the most significant
threats to coastal environments worldwide.
2. Objective/proposed target
96. With regard to objectives and targets, paragraph 21.29 of Agenda 21 states:
"Governments, according to their capacities and available resources and
with the cooperation of the United Nations and other relevant organizations,
as appropriate, should:
"(a) By the year 2000, establish waste treatment and disposal quality
criteria, objectives and standards based on the nature and assimilative
capacity of the receiving environment;
"(b) By the year 2000, establish sufficient capacity to undertake
waste-related pollution impact monitoring and conduct regular surveillance,
including epidemiological surveillance, where appropriate;
"(c) By the year 1995, in industrialized countries, and by the year
2005, in developing countries, ensure that at least 50 per cent of all
sewage, waste waters and solid wastes are treated or disposed of in conformity
with national or international environmental and health quality guidelines;
"(d) By the year 2025, dispose of all sewage, waste waters and solid
wastes in conformity with national or international environmental quality
guidelines."
3. Activities
(a) National actions, policies and measures
97 Actions, policies and measures of States within their national capacities
should include:
(a) Identification of major sewage sources and areas where sewage poses major
environmental and health-related hazards;
(b) Development of national programmes of action for the installation of
appropriate and environmentally sound sewage facilities, and to this end
ensure:
(i) Incorporation of sewage concerns when formulating or reviewing
coastal-development and land-use plans, including human-settlements plans;
(ii) Building and maintenance of sewer systems and sewage-treatment
facilities or other appropriate systems, in accordance with national policies
and capacities and international cooperation available;
(iii) Location of coastal outfalls so as to obtain or maintain agreed
environmental quality criteria and to avoid exposing shell fisheries, water
intakes, and bathing areas to pathogens and to avoid the exposure of
sensitive environments (such as lagoons, coral reefs, seagrass beds,
mangroves, etc.) to excess nutrient loads;
(iv) Promotion of the reuse of treated effluents for the conservation of
water resources To this end, infrastructural measures, treatment at source
and segregation of industrial effluents, shall be encouraged, as well as:
a) Encouragement of the beneficial reuses of sewage effluents and sludges by
the appropriate design of treatment plants and processes and controls of the
quality of influent waste waters;
b) Ensuring the environmentally sound treatment when domestic and compatible
industrial effluents are treated together;
(v) Promotion of primary, secondary and, where appropriate and feasible,
tertiary treatment of municipal sewage discharged to rivers, estuaries and
the sea;
(vi) Reduction and beneficial use of sewage or other solutions appropriate to
specific sites such as no-water and low-water solutions;
(vii) Establishment and improvement of local and national regulatory and
monitoring programmes to control and assess effluent discharge, using minimum
sewage effluent guidelines and water quality criteria and giving due
consideration to the characteristics of receiving bodies and the volume and
type of pollutants;
(viii) Identification of the availability and sustainability of productive
uses of sewage sludge, such as land-spreading, composting, etc.;
(ix) Establishment of research programmes to identify, validate and develop
waste-water treatment technologies;
(c) Provision of sufficient training and education for local administrations
to plan, build and run adequate sewage treatment facilities;
(d) Formulation and implementation of awareness campaigns for the general
public to gain general recognition for the need for the installation of
appropriate and environmentally sound sewage facilities.
(b) Regional actions
98. Regional actions should include:
(a) Promotion and implementation of regional cooperation for the
establishment and implementation of programmes and priority measures for
sewage, particularly in case of transboundary effects;
(b) Development of regional programmes for sharing and exchanging technical
information and advice regarding environmentally sound sewage treatment and
facilities
(c) International actions
99. International actions should include:
(a) Participation in a clearing-house on environmentally sound sewage
technology and practices;
(b) Facilitation of transfer of environmentally sound sewage technology;
(c) Scientific, technical and financial cooperation with countries in need of
assistance, in developing, installing, operating and monitoring appropriate
and environmentally sound sewage facilities.
B. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs)
1. Basis for action
100. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are a set of organic compounds
that: (i) possess toxic characteristics; (ii) are persistent; (iii) are
liable to bioaccumulate; (iv) are prone to long-range transport and
deposition; and (v) can result in adverse environmental and human health
effects at locations near and far from their source. POPs are typically
characterized as having low water solubility and high fat solubility. Most
POPs are anthropogenic in origin Anthropogenic emissions, both point and
diffuse, are associated with industrial processes, product use and
applications, waste disposal, leaks and spills, and combustion of fuels and
waste materials. Once dispersed, clean-up is rarely possible. Because many
POPs are relatively volatile, their remobilization and long-distance
redistribution through atmospheric pathways often complicates the
identification of specific sources.
101. POPs have long environmental
half-lives Accordingly, successive releases over time result in continued
accumulation and the ubiquitous presence of POPs in the global environment.
102. The primary transport routes into the
marine and coastal environment include atmospheric deposition and surface
run-off Regional and global transport is predominately mediated by
atmospheric circulation, but also occurs through sediment transport and
oceanic circulation. Movement may also occur through a successive migration
of short-range movements that result from a sequence of volatilization,
deposition, and revolatilization. Due to these transport patterns and
chemical characteristics, there is a growing body of evidence demonstrating
the systematic migration of these substances to cooler latitudes.
2. Objective/proposed target
103. The objective/proposed target is:
(a) To reduce and/or eliminate emissions and discharges of POPs that threaten
to accumulate to dangerous levels in the marine and coastal environment;
(b) To give immediate attention to finding and introducing preferable
substitutes for chemicals that pose unreasonable and otherwise unmanageable
risks to human health and the environment;
(c) To use cleaner production processes, including best available techniques,
to reduce and/or eliminate hazardous by-products associated with production,
incineration and combustion (e.g dioxins, furans, hexaclorobenzene, poycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs));
(d) To promote best environmental practice for pest control in agriculture
and aquaculture.
3. Activities
(a) National actions, policies and measures
104. Actions, policies and measures of States within their national
capacities should include:
(a) Development, compilation and maintenance of inventories of point-source
releases of POPs, identification and assessment of diffuse sources and sinks
from which POPs may remobilize, and assessment of inputs from these sources
as a basis for pollution control and prevention measures;
(b) Development of comprehensive national programmes of action for the
reduction and/or elimination of emissions and discharges, and where
applicable, remobilization from all significant sources of POPs, including
targets and timetables and sector-specific measures for industry and agriculture:
i. Adoption of appropriate policy instruments – which could include
regulation, economic instruments and voluntary agreements – on POPs
applying the precautionary principle and the "polluter pays"
principle. Priority should be given to phasing out or banning of chemicals
that pose unreasonable and otherwise unmanageable risks to human health and
the environment and whose use can not be adequately controlled. This can be
achieved through substitution by environmentally sound substances, use of best
available techniques (BAT), application of best environmental practice (BEP)
and implementation of integrated pollution prevention and control (IPPC);
ii. Development of appropriate regulatory measures and establishment of
facilities for environmentally sound collection and disposal of wastes
containing POPs;
iii. Establishment of an environmental monitoring programme for POPs
including the development of assessment criteria and the adoption of
internationally accepted quality control and quality assurance procedures;
iv. Development of programmes to promote the informed use of substances which
can result in discharges and emissions of POPs from diffuse sources,
including the promotion of good agricultural practice to limit the use of
pesticides to the application rates essential for crop protection, and
restraint in the non-agricultural use of pesticides, especially on roads and
railways;
v. Establishment of information services for industry and agriculture on
least environmentally hazardous handling and use of POPs, and on substitutes,
technology and ways and means to prevent, reduce and eliminate pollution by
POPs, including best environmental practice (BEP), best available techniques
(BAT) and integrated pollution prevention and control (IPPC);
vi. Ratification and implementation of relevant international and regional
conventions and agreements;
vii. Ensuring the effective implementation of relevant bilateral, regional
and international decisions and recommendations, inter alia, by:
a) Assessing regularly whether the national goals and measures to reduce and
eliminate pollution by POPs are being accomplished;
b) Compliance monitoring, assessing and reporting the effects of these
measures; and
c) Establishing or strengthening, as appropriate, institutions to deal
effectively with the problems of POPs.
(b) Regional actions
105. Regional actions should include:
(a) Encouraging existing regional agreements and programmes of action on the
prevention and elimination of pollution of the marine and coastal environment
from land-based activities, to set up and implement programmes and priority
measures to prevent, reduce and/or eliminate emissions and discharges of POPs
and materials containing POPs from all sources. To this end, they should,
inter alia:
(i) Adopt targets and timetables for reduction and/or elimination of POPs
releases through their substitution, and on best available techniques (BAT),
best environmental practice (BEP), and integrated pollution prevention and
control (IPPC);
(ii) Adopt decisions and recommendations on the development of harmonized
assessment criteria and monitoring programmes based on regionally or
internationally agreed quality control and quality assurance procedures;
(iii) Provide member States with technical information and advice regarding
handling, use and disposal of POPs and their substitutes and ways and means
to minimize and eliminate their release to the environment;
(iv) Ensure transparency of the implementation of decisions and
recommendations by adopting regular reporting on implementation and
monitoring of measures regarding POPs; and
(v) Assess compliance with, and the effects of, the agreed measures;
(b) Encouraging States that are not
already parties to regional agreements and action plans on the prevention and
elimination of pollution of the marine and coastal environment from
land-based activities to join such cooperation and to cooperate on a
bilateral and/or a multilateral basis in the regulation of POPs;
(c) Encouraging the strengthening of or, as appropriate, establishing
regional institutions to deal effectively with the problems of POPs
(c) International actions
106. International actions should include:
(a) Urging international, regional and subregional funding sources and
mechanisms and donor countries, to ensure that the objectives, principles and
measures laid down in this chapter be taken into account when supporting
projects that directly or indirectly relate to emissions, discharges and,
where appropriate, the manufacture and use of POPs, as well as the clean-up
and restoration of areas polluted with POPs;
(b) Encouraging international, regional and subregional funding sources and
mechanisms to ensure that available financial resources are made available
for supporting measures to reduce or eliminate releases of POPs to the
environment;
(c) Inviting appropriate international agencies and bodies to strengthen
necessary information exchange, transfer of environmentally sound technology
and capacity-building for the implementation of the objectives, principles and
measures laid down in this chapter for the reduction and/or elimination of
POPs releases to the environment;
(d) Strengthening and extending existing international quality assurance,
standardization and classification mechanisms for POPs to ensure that
inventories and assessments are both reliable and intercomparable Such
existing mechanisms include those co-sponsored by IOC, UNEP and IAEA under
the GIPME programme, and the associated activities of the Marine
Environmental Studies Laboratory in Monaco;
(e) Cooperation with countries in need of assistance, through financial,
technical and scientific support, in order to reduce and/or eliminate
emissions and discharges of POPs that threaten to accumulate to dangerous
levels in the marine and coastal environment;
(f) Priority attention should be given to finding and introducing preferable
substitutes for POPs that pose unreasonable and otherwise unmanageable risks
to human health and the environment.
C. Radioactive substances
1. Basis for action
107. Radioactive substances (i.e., materials containing radionuclides) have
entered and/or are entering the marine and coastal environment, directly or
indirectly, as a result of a variety of human activities and practices. These
activities include production of energy, reprocessing of spent fuel, military
operations, nuclear testing, medical applications and other operations
associated with the management and disposal of radioactive wastes and the
processing of natural materials by industrial processes. Other activities,
such as the transport of radioactive material, pose risks of such releases.
108 Radioactive materials can present hazards to human health and to the
environment. Suspected radioactive contamination of foodstuffs can also have
negative effects on marketing of such foodstuffs.
2. Objective/proposed target
109. The objective/proposed target is to reduce and/or eliminate emissions
and discharges of radioactive substances in order to prevent, reduce and
eliminate pollution of the marine and coastal environment by human-enhanced
levels of radioactive substances.
3. Activities
(a) National actions, policies and measures
110. Actions, policies and measures of States within their national
capacities should include:
(a) Promotion of policies and practical measures including setting targets
and timetables to minimize and limit the generation of radioactive wastes and
provide for their safe processing, storage, conditioning, transportation and
disposal;
(b) Ensuring the safe storage, transportation and disposal of radioactive
wastes, as well as spent radiation sources and spent fuel from nuclear
reactors destined for final disposal, in accordance with international
regulations or guidelines;
(c) Ensuring proper planning, including environmental impact assessment, of safe
and environmentally sound management of radioactive waste, including
emergency procedures, storage, transportation and disposal, prior to and
after activities that generate such waste;
(d) Adoption of measures, including best available techniques and best
environmental practice, for the reduction and/or elimination of inputs of
radioactive substances to the marine and coastal environment for the purpose
of preventing and eliminating pollution of the marine and coastal
environment;
(e) Ratification and/or implementation of relevant international and regional
conventions, decisions and resolutions.
111. States should:
(a) Not promote or allow the storage or disposal of high-level,
intermediate-level and low-level radioactive wastes near the marine and coastal
environment unless they determine that scientific evidence, consistent with
the applicable internationally agreed principles and guidelines, shows that
such storage or disposal poses no unacceptable risk to people and the marine
and coastal environment or does not interfere with other legitimate uses of
the sea, making, in the process of consideration, appropriate use of the
concept of the precautionary approach;
(b) Respect, in accordance with international law, the decisions, as far as
applicable to them, under other relevant regional and other international
environmental conventions dealing with other aspects of safe and
environmentally sound management of radioactive wastes;
(c) Conclude and sign the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty by no later than 1996;
(*)
(d) Make available information on the characteristics of terrestrial dump
sites in coastal areas through, and consistent with, agreed regional and
international reporting procedures The information should include the
magnitude, types of materials, characteristics of storage and status of the
dump sites.
(b) Regional actions
112 Relevant regional organizations, in accordance with regional needs and
capacities, should ensure:
(a) Monitoring of radioactivity in their regions and identification of any problem
areas;
(b) The establishment of criteria for assessing and/or reporting on the use
in their region of best available techniques to prevent and eliminate
pollution by inputs of radioactive substances;
(c) The preparation of comprehensive environmental assessments of the effect
on the marine and coastal environment of historical discharges and current
discharges of radioactive substances.
(c) International actions
113 International actions should include:
(a) Support for efforts under the auspices of IAEA to develop and promulgate
radioactive waste management safety standards, guidelines or codes of
practice, including work being undertaken towards an international convention
on the safety of radioactive waste management, in order to provide an internationally
accepted basis for the safe and environmentally sound management and disposal
of radioactive wastes. This work should take account of the application of
best available techniques and best environmental practice for all nuclear
applications not currently covered by internationally binding agreements
making such provisions;
(b) Cooperation with countries in need of assistance, through financial,
technical and scientific support, in ensuring environmentally sound
management and storage of radioactive materials as well as supporting
environmental restoration efforts;
(c) Maintenance of existing international quality assurance and
standardization mechanisms supporting the reliable measurement and assessment
of radionuclides in the environment. Such existing mechanisms include the
Analytical Quality Control Services provided by the Marine Environmental
Studies Laboratory of IAEA;
(d) Consideration by all Governments and international organizations that
have expertise in the field of clean-up and disposal of radioactive
contaminants to give appropriate assistance as may be requested for remedial
purposes in adversely affected areas.
D. Heavy metals
1. Basis for action
114. Heavy metals are natural constituents of the Earth's crust. Human
activities have drastically altered the biochemical and geochemical cycles
and balance of some heavy metals. Heavy metals are stable and persistent
environmental contaminants since they cannot be degraded or destroyed.
Therefore, they tend to accumulate in the soils and sediments Excessive
levels of metals in the marine environment can affect marine biota and pose
risk to human consumers of seafood.
115. Metals and their compounds, both
inorganic and organic, are released to the environment as a result of a
variety of human activities. A wide range of metals and metallic compounds
found in the marine environment pose risks to human health through the
consumption of seafood where contaminant content and exposure are
significant. Many metals are essential to life and only become toxic when
exposures to biota become excessive (i.e., exceed some threshold for the
introduction of adverse effects). While certain non-essential metals do not
have explicit exposure thresholds for the introduction of effects, the nature
of biological responses to metal exposure are a direct consequence of
exposure and are defined through dose-effect relationships. This differs from
the dose-response relationship associated with many synthetic organic
contaminants and radionuclides where risk of adverse effects is assumed to be
proportional to exposure. Accordingly, it is desirable to minimize such
exposures. In contrast, the predominant challenge in the case of heavy metals
is one of limiting exposure to levels that do not cause adverse effects.
116. The main anthropogenic sources of
heavy metals are various industrial point sources, including present and
former mining activities, foundries and smelters, and diffuse sources such as
piping, constituents of products, combustion by-products, traffic, etc. Relatively
volatile heavy metals and those that become attached to air-borne particles
can be widely dispersed on very large scales. Heavy metals conveyed in
aqueous and sedimentary transport (e.g., river run-off) enter the normal
coastal biogeochemical cycle and are largely retained within near-shore and
shelf regions.
2. Objective/proposed target
117. The objective/proposed target is to reduce and/or eliminate
anthropogenic emissions and discharges in order to prevent, reduce and
eliminate pollution caused by heavy metals.
3. Activities
(a) National actions, policies and measures
118 Actions, policies and measures of States within their national capacities
should include:
(a) Development, compilation and maintenance of inventories on significant
sources, including natural sources, of priority heavy metals and their
compounds and subsequent assessment of inputs and establishment of priority
(geographic or subject) areas for action. They should also, where
appropriate, take into account input from long-range transport of these
pollutants;
(b) Development of comprehensive national programmes of action for reduction
and/or elimination of emissions and discharges of heavy metals from
anthropogenic sources could include:
(i) Targets, timetables and sector-specific measures, respecting the
precautionary principle, best available techniques (BAT), best environmental
practice (BEP) and integrated pollution prevention and control (IPPC);
(ii) Fiscal and economic incentives and measures, including voluntary
agreements to encourage reduction and/or elimination of emissions and
discharges of heavy metals;
(iii) Appropriate regulatory measures and establishment of facilities for
environmentally sound collection and disposal of hazardous wastes containing
heavy metals taking into account the technical document on landfill agreed
upon within the framework of the Basel Convention on the Control of
Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal;
(iv) Promotion of technical solutions, such as the use of unleaded petrol and
filter systems for smelters;
(v) Means to ensure effective implementation of the programme of action;
(vi) The establishment of cleaner production programmes in cooperation with
industry;
(c) Establishment of an environmental monitoring programme for heavy metals
including the development of assessment criteria and the adoption of
internationally accepted quality control and quality assurance procedures;
(d) Formulation and implementation of awareness and education campaigns for
the public and industry, to gain general recognition of the need to reduce
and eliminate pollution by heavy metals and in particular to further reduce
diffuse inputs through waste systems, including sewerage systems;
(e) Establishment of information services for industry on technology and ways
and means to prevent, reduce and eliminate pollution by heavy metals,
including best environmental practice (BEP), best available techniques (BAT)
and integrated pollution prevention and control (IPPC);
(f) Promotion of private initiatives for the establishment and implementation
of systems of internal environmental management within industry.
(b) Regional actions
119. Regional actions should include:
(a) Encouraging existing regional agreements and programmes of action dealing
with the prevention and elimination of pollution of the marine and coastal
environment from land-based activities, to develop or continue to develop and
implement programmes and measures to reduce and/or eliminate emissions and
discharges of heavy metals and material containing these substances from the
appropriate industrial sectors, products and groups of products;
(b) Development and implementation of monitoring programmes and regular
assessments of levels, inputs and effects based on regionally agreed quality
control and quality assurance procedures and harmonized assessment criteria;
(c) Encouraging States, including land-locked States, that are not already
parties to regional seas arrangements regarding the protection of the marine
and coastal environment from land-based activities to join such cooperation
and to cooperate on bilateral and multilateral basis in the control of
pollution from heavy metals;
(d) Promotion of cooperation in the development of cleaner production
programmes.
(c) International actions
120. International actions should include:
(a) Strengthening and extending existing international quality assurance,
standardization and classification mechanisms for heavy metals and their
compounds to ensure that inventories and assessments are both reliable and
intercomparable Such existing mechanisms include those co-sponsored by IOC,
UNEP and IAEA under the GIPME programme and the associated activities of the
Marine Environmental Studies Laboratory in Monaco;
(b) Participation in a clearing-house for information on best available
techniques (BAT), best environmental practice (BEP) and integrated pollution
prevention and control (IPPC) to reduce and/or eliminate emissions and
discharges of heavy metals;
(c) Cooperation with countries in need of assistance, through financial,
scientific and technical support to maximize the best practicable control and
reduction of anthropogenic emissions and discharges of heavy metals.
E. Oils (Hydrocarbons)
1. Basis for action
121. Many oils are liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons of geological origin.
While some oils are naturally occurring, a significant proportion of those in
the marine and coastal environment have been derived from anthropogenic
sources. Most oils from land-based sources are refined petroleum products or
their derivatives. Some oils are volatile or easily degraded and disappear
rapidly from aquatic systems, but some may persist in the water column or in
sediments. Oils may be toxic to aquatic life when ingested or absorbed
through skin or gills, interfere with respiratory systems, foul fur and
feathers, smother aquatic communities, habitats and bathing beaches, taint
seafood and contaminate water supplies.
122. Land-based sources of oils include
operational and accidental discharges and emissions from oil exploration,
exploitation, refining and storage facilities; urban, industrial and
agricultural run-off; transport; and the inappropriate disposal of used
lubricating oils. The main pathways to the marine environment include
atmospheric dispersion of volatile fractions; storm sewers and sewage
treatment works; and rivers. Impacts from land-derived oils will be regional
for the more volatile fractions, and local (occasionally regional) for more
refractory components.
2. Objective/proposed target
123. The objective is to prevent, reduce and/or eliminate anthropogenic
emissions and discharges in order to prevent, reduce and eliminate pollution
caused by oil.
3. Activities
(a) National actions, policies and measures
124. Actions, policies and measures of States within their national
capacities should include:
(a) Development, compilation and maintenance of inventories of significant
sources of oils, and subsequent assessment and establishment of areas
(geographic or substance) for action. They should also, where appropriate,
take into account inputs from long-range transport of these pollutants;
(b) Development of comprehensive national programmes of action for the
reduction and/or elimination of priority emissions and discharges from
anthropogenic sources could include:
(i) Targets, timetables, and sector-specific measures respecting the
precautionary principle and applying best available techniques (BAT), best
environmental practice (BEP), and integrated pollution prevention and control
(IPPC);
(ii) Fiscal and economic incentives and measures, including voluntary
agreements, to encourage reductions in emissions and discharges of oils, to
encourage the recycling of used lubricating oils, and to encourage fuel-use
efficiencies;
(iii) The provision of reception and recycling facilities for oily wastes;
(iv) Development of plans and measures to prevent accidental releases of
oils, particularly from coastal refineries, storage facilities and waste
reception facilities and of capacities to respond to such accidents;
(v) Establishment of cleaner production programmes in cooperation with
industry;
(vi) Means to ensure the effective implementation of the programme of action;
(c) Establishment of environmental monitoring programmes for oil, including
the development of assessment criteria and the adoption of internationally
accepted quality control and quality assurance procedures;
(d) Formulation and implementation of awareness and education campaigns for
the public and industry to gain general recognition of the need and ways to
reduce emissions and discharges of oil, and, in particular, to further reduce
diffuse inputs through waste systems, including sewerage systems;
(e) Establishment of information services for industry on technology and ways
and means to prevent, reduce and eliminate pollution by oil, including best
environmental practice (BEP), best available techniques (BAT), and integrated
pollution prevention and control (IPPC);
(f) Promotion of private initiatives for the establishment and implementation
of systems of internal environmental management within industry.
(b) Regional actions
125. Regional actions should include:
(a) Encouraging existing regional agreements and programmes of action on the
prevention and elimination of pollution of the marine and coastal environment
from land-based activities, to develop or continue to develop and implement
programmes and measures to reduce and/or eliminate emissions and discharges
of oils from the appropriate industrial sectors, products and groups of
products;
(b) Adoption of programmes and measures on the development of harmonized
assessment criteria and monitoring programmes based on regionally or
internationally agreed quality control and quality assurance procedures;
(c) Encouraging States, including land-locked States, that are not already
parties to regional seas arrangements regarding the protection of the marine
and coastal environment from land-based activities, to join such cooperation
and to cooperate on bilateral and multilateral basis in the control of
pollution from oil;
(d) Promoting cooperation on the development of cleaner- production
programmes, best available techniques, and best environmental practice;
(e) Development of regional plans and measures to prevent accidental releases
of oils, and development of regional capacities to respond to such accidents;
(f) Where appropriate, the provision of regional reception and recycling
facilities for oily wastes.
(c) International actions
126. International actions should include:
(a) Strengthening and extending existing international quality assurance,
standardization and classification mechanisms for oil, oil products and their
constituents to ensure that inventories and assessments are both reliable and
intercomparable. Such existing mechanisms include those co-sponsored by IOC,
UNEP, and IAEA under the GIPME programme, and the associated activities of
the Marine Environmental Studies Laboratory in Monaco;
(b) Participation in a clearing-house for information on best available
techniques (BAT), best environmental practice (BEP), and integrated pollution
prevention and control (IPPC) to reduce and/or eliminate emissions and
discharges of oil;
(c) Cooperation with countries in need of assistance through financial,
technical, and scientific support, to maximize the best practicable control
and reduction in emissions and discharges of oil.
F. Nutrients
1. Basis for action
127. Eutrophication can result from augmentation of nutrient inputs to
coastal and marine areas as a consequence of human activities. In general,
such eutrophication is usually confined to the vicinity of coastal discharges
but, because of both the multiplicity of such discharges and regional
atmospheric transport of nutrients, such affected coastal areas can be
extensive.
128. The effects of the enhanced mobilization
of nutrients are enhanced productivity but these can also result in changes
in species diversity, excessive algal growth, dissolved oxygen reductions and
associated fish kills and, it is suspected, the increased prevalence or
frequency of toxic algal blooms.
2. Objective/proposed target
129. The objective/proposed target is:
(a) To identify, in broad terms, marine areas where nutrient inputs are
causing or are likely to cause pollution, directly or indirectly;
(b) To reduce nutrient inputs into the areas identified;
(c) To reduce the number of marine areas where eutrophication is evident;
(d) To protect and, where appropriate, to restore areas of natural
denitrification.
3. Activities
(a) National actions, policies and measures
130 Actions, policies and measures of States within their capacities should
include:
(a) Identification of areas where nutrient inputs are likely to cause
pollution, directly or indirectly;
(b) Identification of point sources and diffuse sources of nutrient inputs
into these areas;
(c) Identification of areas where changes in anthropogenic nutrient inputs
are causing or are likely to cause pollution, either directly or indirectly,
and prioritization of these areas for action;
(d) Adoption of appropriate cost-effective policy instruments, including
regulatory measures, economic instruments and voluntary agreements, to
control anthropogenic sources of nutrients affecting these areas, including:
(i) Activities related to sewage treatment and management mentioned in
paragraph 97 (b) above;
(ii) Minimization of the release of nutrients by the use of best
environmental practice (BEP) in agriculture and aquaculture operations;
(iii) Minimization of the release of nutrients by the use of best
environmental practice (BEP), best available techniques (BAT) and integrated
pollution prevention and control (IPPC) in industrial operations;
(iv) Formulation and implementation of awareness and information campaigns
for the adoption of appropriate agricultural techniques, including balanced
fertilization and ecological agriculture, to minimize nutrient losses from
agricultural activities;
(v) Introduction of measures to reduce inputs of nutrients via atmospheric
deposition from transportation, industrial plants and agriculture;
(e) Strengthening the capacities of local authorities to take account of
likely impacts of inputs of nutrients from agriculture and urban development
in carrying out their functions of planning and controlling land-use and
development;
(f) Establishment or improvement, as appropriate, of monitoring of all
aspects of eutrophication;
(g) Promotion of scientific research on the suspected linkages between
eutrophication and toxic algal blooms;
(h) Development and adoption of programmes to protect and, where appropriate,
restore habitats acting as natural sinks for nutrients such as wetlands.
(b) Regional actions
131. Regional actions should include:
(a) Establishment of common criteria for the identification of existing and
potential problem areas including possible solutions with regard to
eutrophication;
(b) Identification of marine areas in the region where nutrient inputs are
causing or are likely to cause pollution, directly or indirectly;
(c) Identification of areas for priority actions;
(d) Establishment of uniform approaches to the calculation of anthropogenic
nutrient inputs to the aquatic environment from agriculture and other
sources, as appropriate, with the aim of improving the estimation of these
inputs;
(e) Development and implementation of programmes and measures for reducing
nutrient inputs from anthropogenic activities to areas where these inputs are
causing or are likely to cause pollution directly or indirectly and, where
the agricultural sector is a predominant source, to pay particular attention
to that sector and the implementation of measures identified for it;
(f) Establishment of mechanisms for assessing the effectiveness of the
measures taken to reduce nutrient inputs to the aquatic environment from both
point and diffuse sources;
(g) Development of strategies for reducing eutrophication in areas already
affected and those susceptible to being affected.
(c) International actions
132. International actions should include:
(a) Participation in a clearing-house for providing information about best
environmental practice and access to best available techniques to reduce
and/or eliminate causes of anthropogenic eutrophication;
(b) Strengthening of international programmes for enhancing capacity for:
(i) Identification of areas where inputs of nutrients are causing or are
likely to cause pollution, directly or indirectly;
(ii) Nutrient control and removal techniques;
(iii) Application of best environmental practice in aquaculture and
agriculture;
(c) Cooperation with countries in need of assistance, through financial,
technological and scientific support, in developing and implementing
practices which minimize releases of nutrients to the environment, including
environmentally sound land-use techniques, planning and practices;
(d) Provision of forums for establishing criteria for determining the
circumstances in which nutrients are likely to cause pollution, directly or
indirectly;
(e) Maintaining existing international quality assurance and quality control
procedures relevant to eutrophication.
G. Sediment mobilization
1. Basis for action
133. Natural sedimentation and siltation are important in the development and
maintenance of numerous coastal habitats. Habitats requiring sediment input
include coastal wetlands, lagoons, estuaries and mangroves. Reduction in
natural rates of sedimentation can compromise the integrity of these
habitats, as can excessive sediment loads, which may bury benthic communities
and threaten sensitive habitats such as coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass
beds, and rocky substrates.
134. Contaminated sediments, whether they
are fresh inputs or dredged, may also lead to pollution, the latter through
resuspension or improper disposal.
135. Anthropogenic modifications to
sediment mobilization and sedimentation are made by, inter alia, construction
activities, forestry operations, agricultural practices, mining practices,
hydrological modifications, dredging activities, and coastal erosion. Effects
are generally local in nature, but transboundary implications may occur in
some areas where major river systems form a common border and where littoral
currents carry inputs across international boundaries.
2. Objective/proposed target
136. The objective/proposed target is to reduce, control and prevent the
degradation of the marine environment due to changes in coastal erosion and
siltation caused by human activities.
3. Activities
(a) National actions, policies and measures
137. Actions, policies and measures of States within their capacities should
include:
(a) Development and implementation of environmentally sound land-use
practices to control sediment discharges to watercourses and estuaries which
cause degradation of the marine environment;
(b) Establishment of measures to control, reduce and prevent coastal erosion
and siltation due to anthropogenic factors such as land-use, including
coastal mining and construction practices, while ensuring that natural
erosion supplying sedimentary habitats is not impeded;
(c) Introduction of watershed management and land-use practices to prevent,
control and reduce degradation of the marine environment due to anthropogenic
changes in sediment loads and contamination of sediments;
(d) Application of practices developed under existing international
regulations to prevent marine pollution/degradation from dumping of dredged
material and associated dredging operations;
(e) Establishment or improvement of monitoring of sediment transport to the
marine environment and associated sedimentation patterns and rates;
(f) Application of environmentally sound management and storage practices for
polluted dredged material;
(g) Adoption of measures to minimize changes to natural erosion, sediment
transport and sedimentation resulting from the construction of barriers and
barrages.
(b) Regional actions
138. Regional actions should include:
(a) Promotion of regional cooperation, where appropriate, for the
establishment of programmes and priority measures to control anthropogenic
modifications to sedimentation/siltation;
(b) Development or enhancement, as appropriate, of regional programmes for
the exchange of information on technology and techniques and experience
regarding sedimentation/siltation.
(c) International actions
139. International actions should include:
(a) Development of methodologies to reduce, control and prevent adverse
effects of sedimentation/siltation, including the formulation of mechanisms
for determining changes in sediment mobilization and transport, incorporating
relevant quality assurance and standardization procedures;
(b) Participation in a clearing-house for providing information on
technologies, measures and experiences regarding sedimentation/siltation;
(c) Cooperation with countries in need of assistance, through financial,
scientific and technical support, in the development and implementation of
environmentally sound land-use techniques, planning and practices to reduce,
control and prevent the negative effects of changes in erosion and siltation
rates.
H. Litter
1. Basis for action
140. Litter threatens marine life through entanglement, suffocation and ingestion
and is widely recognized to degrade the visual amenities of marine and
coastal areas with negative effects on tourism and general aesthetics. Litter
is any persistent manufactured or processed solid material which is
discarded, disposed of, or abandoned in the marine and coastal environment,
sometimes called marine debris. Litter in the marine environment can also
destroy coastal habitats and |